The question of the role of personality in history appeared a long time ago, but is still of interest to both professional historians and philosophers in their scientific research, and ordinary people in everyday life.
Many scientists have tried to resolve the issue of the role of personality in history. Often there were completely opposite judgments. As Georgy Plekhanov wrote: “If some subjectivists, trying to assign the broadest possible role to the individual in history, refused to recognize the historical movement of mankind as a law-governed process, then some of their newest opponents, trying to highlight the law-governed nature of this movement as best as possible, were apparently ready forget that history is made by people and that therefore the activities of individuals cannot but have significance in it.”
For most people, these questions, at an everyday level, are expressed as follows: “Can I change life?”, “Can I change the world?”, “Is what I do important?”
When analyzing the influence of an individual on society, you need to pay attention to some points:
The laws of social development are not a “track” along which history follows, they are rather “rules of the game” that are mandatory for everyone;
There is no point in trying to figure out the universal relationship between the objective and the subjective for all personalities and historical facts. For each historical fact and each person this ratio is different and is determined by both this fact and this person;
The will of a person, his actions do not appear out of nowhere; they are also historically determined.
If we consider superficially the question of the role of the individual in history, then in a generalized form it can be solved something like this: A person is born and acts in specific historical conditions, in a certain socio-economic environment. Therefore, in general he thinks and acts in accordance with them. A person can influence the course of history, contribute to the acceleration or slowdown of historical patterns, but cannot cancel their effect.
But if we consider this issue in specific historical facts, then such a generalized explanation cannot fully characterize what is happening or reflect the action of subjective and objective forces.
What the role of the individual depends on: on herself, the historical situation, historical laws, accidents, or on all at once, in what combination and how exactly is difficult. And the answer itself greatly depends on the aspect, angle and point of view we have chosen, the period under consideration and other relativistic and methodological aspects.
Since the role of the individual is manifested in specific historical events, phenomena and processes, it is necessary to evaluate it in relation to these historical facts. In addition, it must be taken into account that no individual is capable of creating great eras if there are no accumulated conditions for this in society.
To analyze this topic, we can roughly divide it into parts:
1) whether the historical fact is objective or subjective.
2) if a historical fact is subjective, that is, generated by the actions of a person, then under the influence of objective processes or subjective factors the actions of the person himself were generated.
The question of the role of the individual in specific historical conditions is closely intertwined with the question of the role of chance in history. What was caused by objective laws, and what happened due to a confluence of unrelated circumstances?
Therefore, this issue cannot be ignored. In the scientific literature, three factors are identified that influence the development of personality: heredity, environment and upbringing. That is, in general, the formation of personality is causally determined and natural. However, people are born into different socio-economic conditions. For example, under a monarchical system, heredity and the upbringing of future monarchs often play a significant role
Personal qualities can have a significant impact on the course of the historical process. For example, how would the Great Patriotic War have ended if Nazi Germany had created an atomic bomb before the end of the war?
At the same time, one should not project a person’s personality, even a significant and outstanding one, equally onto all events in one way or another connected with him, because historical patterns, cause-and-effect relationships, and class worldview do not cease to operate
Speaking about the influence of “great” personalities on history, it should be noted that their actions are determined by the problems facing society. Thus, no one even thought about abolishing serfdom in Russia until it became a brake on the country’s development. But “great” personalities do not simply carry out historical missions. A person can take any action or not. And each person will carry out actions in his own way, although in accordance with the conditions in which this person finds himself.
Personality does not equally influence events, phenomena and processes. The personality has the greatest influence on events - it can radically change, create and stop them. A person can give features to a phenomenon, for example, the features of legislation determine the tax collection system. The influence on processes is manifested in acceleration, deceleration of their action, and giving specificity to a given process.
Personality affects different areas of life in different ways. So, if this influence on socio-economic development is minimal, then the political structure, which also depends on socio-economic conditions, is influenced more significantly. But the personality has the greatest influence on the spiritual sphere of life, on the mood and ideology of the masses. Considering that all these spheres are interconnected and influence each other (with the determining role of socio-economic development), the personality influences all spheres of life not only directly, but also indirectly through others.
The degree of influence of an individual on historical facts depends, on the one hand, on the nature of these facts themselves, and on the other hand, on the individual’s ability to influence society, his position in this society.
Who can influence the course of the historical process? Krapivensky S.E. understands by a personality influencing the historical process “every individual who takes an active position in life and contributes through his work, struggle, theoretical searches, etc. a certain contribution to the development of one or another sphere of social life, and through it to the historical process as a whole.” In our opinion, influence is exerted not only by an active personality, but also by a passive one, since inaction is also an action.
Society as a whole consists of the interaction of all individuals. Therefore, each person can influence historical facts even with the smallest deeds. And the more individuals act and think in the same way, the greater this influence will be. Its degree will, of course, depend on the social status of these people. But in general, quantitative changes will turn into qualitative ones, the sum of the actions of various people will lead to qualitative changes in society.
The actions of an individual influence, on the one hand, society as a whole, and, on the other hand, other, specific people. So, for example, if one person receives a high-quality education, on the one hand this will increase, albeit slightly, the indicator of education in society, and on the other hand it will also affect the environment of this person: it will interest others in education and increase their level of knowledge.
Have you ever taken any action that turned a situation around and left you feeling as if you had just defied fate itself and defeated it? But, despite all the results, your action could only be decisive in some small situation and could not in any way influence society and, especially, the whole world. Although, there were those in history who were able to turn its course and make it go according to their own scenario.
Here is a list of 10 outstanding personalities who, through their actions, were able to change the whole world and history so much that we still see the consequences of their actions. This is not a top or even a comparative article; historical figures are arranged by the dates of their lives and deeds.
Euclid, father of mathematics
Numbers, addition, division, tens, fractions - what do these words refer to? That's right, back to math! It is impossible to imagine the modern world without many calculations, because at a minimum we are forced to count the money spent on buying groceries in the store. But there were times when there was not even the concept of “unit” in people’s minds. Where did this great science called “mathematics” come from? Euclid is the founder of this science and its founder. It was he who gave the world mathematics in the form in which we see it. “Euclidean geometry” was taken as a basis by ancient, and later by medieval scientists as a model of mathematical calculations.
Attila, King of the Huns
The great king of the Huns left a noticeable mark on history. If not for him, the Western Roman Empire could have collapsed earlier. Attila's invasion of Gaul and his meeting with the Pope left a rich mark on Catholic literature. In medieval writings, Attila began to be called the Scourge of God, and the invasion of the Huns itself was regarded as punishment for insufficient service to God. All this, one way or another, was reflected in the subsequent development of Europe.
Emperor of the steppes Genghis Khan.
As soon as the Europeans recovered from the invasions of the Huns, the threat from the nomads once again hung over Europe. A huge horde that wipes out entire cities from the face of the earth. An enemy that both German mercenaries and Japanese samurai fought at the same time. We are talking about the Mongols, led by the rulers of the Genghisid dynasty, and the founder of this dynasty is Genghis Khan.
The Genghisid Empire is the largest continental empire in the entire history of mankind. European rulers united in the face of the danger of the Mongols, and conquered peoples created their own unique culture from the influence of the conquerors. One of these peoples were the Russians. They will be freed from the power of the Horde and form a state, which, in turn, will also change history.
Discoverer Columbus
Everything in the modern world, one way or another, is connected with America. It was in America that the first colonial power appeared, in which not the indigenous population lived, but colonists. And we can talk about the US contribution to world history for a very long time. But America didn’t just appear on the map. Who discovered it for the whole world? The name of Christopher Columbus is associated with the discovery of this land for the whole world.
The genius of Leonardo Da Vinci
Mona Lisa is a painting known all over the world. Its author is Leonardo Da Vinci, a Renaissance figure, inventor, sculptor, artist, philosopher, biologist and writer, such people were called geniuses in his time. A great man with a great legacy.
Da Vinci's influence on art and science is enormous. Being the most outstanding figure of the Renaissance, he made an enormous contribution to the art of subsequent generations. Based on his inventions, new ones were invented, some of which still serve us today. His discoveries in anatomy radically changed the concept of biology, because he was one of the few who, despite the prohibition of the church, opened and examined corpses.
Reformer Martin Luther
In the 16th century, this name evoked the most contrasting emotions. Martin Luther is the founder of the Reformation, a movement against the power of the Pope. The formation of a new confession, supported by the masses, is already a major undertaking, capable of changing the world. And when this denomination is formed from another in a separatist manner, then war is not far away. Europe was overwhelmed by a wave of religious wars that lasted more than a century. The largest conflict was the Thirty Years' War, one of the bloodiest wars in history. Let us not forget that, despite the end of all wars over religion, religious differences further divided Europe. Protestantism became the state religion in some countries and even remains so in a few of them to this day.
Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of France
"Through hardship to the stars". This quote describes this man perfectly. Starting his journey as an ordinary Corsican boy, Napoleon became Emperor of France and excited all the European powers, which had not seen such people for hundreds of years.
The name of the emperor-commander was known to every European. Such a person could not disappear without a trace from the pages of history. His military successes will become an example for many commanders, and his personality will be equated with God. Guided by his “guiding star,” Bonaparte changed the world the way he wanted.
Leader of the revolution Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
Every citizen of Russia has ever heard about the “Great October Revolution” - the event that marked the beginning of the formation of a new power. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin created the world's very first socialist state, which in the future will have a huge impact on world history.
The Great October Revolution is considered the most significant event in the whole world to this day, because it proved that the establishment of a communist state was possible. The Soviet Union, which replaced the Russian Empire, changed the world in a way that many could not even imagine.
Founder of modern physics Albert Einstein
1933: German-Swiss-American mathematical physicist Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955). (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images) The name of Albert Einstein is known even to those who don’t really understand anything about physics. This is understandable: his very name is a common noun. The creator of the famous theory of relativity and countless works, Albert Einstein changed the very concept of the word “physics”.
The general theory of relativity caused a stir among scientists, but it was not the only work of this scientist. All established scientific theories and opinions were literally ground into powder by just one person. Modern physics still stands on the statements of Albert Einstein and, perhaps, will stand for hundreds of years.
Adolf Gitler
The Second World War is the bloodiest conflict in the history of mankind. More than 70 million people lost their lives, and many more lives were broken. Everyone knows the name of the one who started this war. Adolf Hitler is the leader of the NSDAP, the founder of the Third Reich, a man whose name is inextricably linked with the concepts of the Holocaust and the Second World War.
No matter how much everyone hated Hitler, his influence on world history is recognized and undeniable, because the results of the Second World War still echo across our world, sometimes revealing various details. To be more specific and simpler, it was because of Hitler that the UN was formed, the Cold War began, and many inventions were created that passed from the army into human life. But we shouldn’t forget about the destruction of entire nationalities just because they simply exist, we shouldn’t forget about the 70 million who gave their lives to end this terrible conflict, we shouldn’t forget about the tragedy that the whole world had to put an end to.
History is made in society, but at the same time, someone always controls it. This can be either a group of people or one person: a leader by nature, fanatically devoted to his idea, possessing the ability to speak, and, of course, charm.
As an example, it is worth citing the personality of Hitler, whose appearance in public caused tears in women, and in men - a willingness to give their own lives for him. There was nothing special about him - frailty and unattractiveness were the first impression of his appearance. But this man certainly had the ability to get a crowd going. Similar feelings were evoked by Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Napoleon and many other historical figures who knew how to lead the people.
But is it enough to have only these above-mentioned qualities? This person must also find himself in a historical environment that is favorable to him.
Let us remember such a famous historical character as Emelyan Pugachev. Against the background of the oppression of the peasant people, during the reign of serfdom, when no changes are foreseen, a “messiah” appears, ready to lead the people - so to speak, into a bright future. The peasants, armed with pitchforks, follow him. And it doesn’t matter that the uprising was eventually suppressed, and Pugachev was executed, the key point here is another circumstance: the authorities realized the fact that nothing can be left to chance, changes are necessary.
Decades later, serfdom was abolished. Isn't this an example of an individual influencing the course of history? In the history of our state there are numerous examples of people who have the ability to radically influence the course of history.
It is worth remembering “grandfather” Lenin.
But what price must be paid by a great man who assumes the right to govern nations and decide the destinies of millions of people? He must act as an actor who has refused to live a real, authentic life with its joys, love affairs and hatred - in general, from everything human.
This is shown very accurately in the novel "War and Peace". Tolstoy sees Napoleon not as a great man, but rather as a flawed one. According to the writer, an unhappy person is only capable of bringing evil to people who is not familiar with the true joys of life. Of course, his influence on the course of history is undeniable, but he himself receives only suffering from this. A person who dares to influence the course of history has to bear a bitter burden. At the end of the path, this person is doomed to mental torment, and deliverance from them in the form of death. Such people cannot make mistakes, love and think freely.
As you know, history is a process of human activity that forms a connection between the past, present and future. The linear model of historical development, according to which society develops from simple to more complex stages, has existed in science and philosophy for a long time. However, at present, priority is still given to the civilizational approach.
The development of the historical process is influenced by many factors. Among these factors, a person who conducts social activities plays an important role. The role of a person in history especially increases if he is directly related to power.
Plekhanov G.V. noted that history is made by people. The activity of each individual person, who takes an active life position, contributes with his work, theoretical research, etc. In addition, a certain contribution to the development of one or another sphere of social life is already a contribution to the historical process as a whole.
The French writer J. Lemaitre wrote that all people participate in the creation of history. Therefore, each of us, at least in the most insignificant share, is obliged to contribute to her beauty and not allow her to be too ugly. It is impossible not to agree with the writer’s point of view, since all our actions in one way or another affect the people who surround us. So how can a person influence the formation of society and history as a whole?
The question of personality in the historical process has worried scientists at all times, and currently remains relevant. Life does not stand still, history moves forward, human society is constantly developing, and significant personalities enter the historical arena, replacing those who remain in the past.
Many thinkers and philosophies have dealt with the problem of the role of personality in history. Among them are G. Hegel, G.V. Plekhanov, L.N. Tolstoy, K. Marx and many others. Therefore, the ambiguity of the solution to this problem is associated with ambiguous approaches to the very essence of the historical process.
Let us note that history is driven by impulses that set in motion large masses of people, entire nations, and in each given nation, entire classes. And for this it is necessary to understand what influence these masses carry within them.
The people are the creation of their era, but the people are also the creator of their era. The creative power of the people appears especially clearly in the actions of great historical figures. Throughout the life of mankind, we see the connection between personality and history, their influence on each other, their interaction. Moreover, the emergence of this category of personality is caused by certain historical conditions, which are prepared by the activities of the masses and historical needs.
The mass, as a special type of historical community of people, fulfills its assigned role. If the uniqueness of the individual is ignored or suppressed while achieving collective cohesion, the human collective turns into a mass. The main features of the masses are: heterogeneity, spontaneity, suggestibility, variability, which serve as manipulation by the leader. Individuals are capable of controlling the masses. The mass, in its unconscious movement towards order, elects a leader who embodies its ideals.
The influence of an individual on the course of history largely depends directly on how numerous the masses are that follow him, and on which he relies through some class or party. Because of this, an outstanding personality must not only be talented, but also have organizational skills in order to attract people with him.
History teaches that no class, no social force achieves dominance unless it puts forward its own political leaders. But individual talents are not enough. It is necessary that in the course of the development of society, tasks that can be solved by one or another individual should be on the agenda.
The appearance of an outstanding personality on the historical arena is prepared by objective circumstances, the maturation of certain social needs. Such needs appear during changing periods in the development of countries and their peoples. So what characterizes an outstanding personality, especially a statesman?
In his work “Philosophy of History,” G. Hegel wrote that there is an organic connection between the necessity dominant in history and the historical activity of people. Individuals of this kind, with extraordinary insight, understand the perspective of the historical process and form their goals on the basis of what is new, which is still hidden within a given historical reality.
The question arises: would the course of history have changed in some cases if this or that person had not been present or, on the contrary, had a figure appeared at the right moment?
G.V. Plekhanov believes that the role of the individual is determined by the organization of society, which serves only as a way to prove the triumph of inexorable Marxist laws over the will of man.
Modern researchers note that personality is not a simple “cast” of society. On the contrary, society and personality actively influence each other. There are many ways to organize society, and therefore, there will be many options for the manifestation of personality. Thus, the historical role of an individual can range from the most inconspicuous to the most enormous.
A huge number of events in history have always been marked by the manifestation of activity by various individuals: brilliant or stupid, talented or mediocre; strong-willed or weak-willed, progressive or reactionary.
And as history shows, a person, having become the head of a state, army, party, or people's militia, can have different influences on the course of historical development. The process of personal advancement is determined by both the personal qualities of people and the needs of society.
Therefore, first of all, a historical figure is assessed from the point of view of how he fulfilled the tasks assigned to him by history and the people.
A striking example of such a personality is Peter I. To understand and explain the actions of an outstanding personality, it is necessary to study the very process of formation of the character of this personality. We will not talk about how the character of Peter I was formed. We will only pay attention to the following. From how Peter's character developed and what the result was, it becomes clear what impact he could have on Russia as a tsar. The methods and strategy of governing the state of Peter I were very different from the previous ones.
One of the distinctive features of Peter I, determined by his upbringing and the process of character formation, is that he intuitively felt and looked far into the future. At the same time, his main policy was that in order to best achieve the desired results, there is little influence from above; it is necessary to go to the people, improve skills and change the style of work of the management groups of society through training abroad.
Historians have long come to the conclusion that the program of Peter’s reforms matured long before the start of the reign of Peter I, that is, there were already objective prerequisites for change, and a person is able to speed up or delay the solution of a problem, give this solution special features, and use the opportunities provided with talent or incompetence.
If another “calm” sovereign had come to replace Peter I, the era of reforms in Russia would be postponed, as a result of which the country would begin to play a completely different role. Peter was a bright individual in everything, and this is what allowed him to break established traditions, customs, habits, enrich old experience with new ideas and actions, and borrow what was necessary and useful from other peoples. It was thanks to the personality of Peter that Russia has moved forward noticeably, reducing its gap with the advanced countries of Western Europe.
However, we note that a person can have different influences on the course and outcome of historical events, both positive and negative, and sometimes both.
In our opinion, in modern Russia we can single out a personality who has left his mark on its history. An example of such a person is M.S. Gorbachev. Not much time has passed to fully understand and appreciate his role in the history of modern Russia, but some conclusions can already be drawn. Having become the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in March 1985, M.S. Gorbachev could have continued the course that was taken before him. But after analyzing the situation in the country that had developed by that time, he came to the conclusion that perestroika was an urgent need that grew out of the deep processes of development of a socialist society, and society was ripe for change, and delaying perestroika carried the threat of a serious socio-economic and political crisis.
Gorbachev M.S. were characterized by idealism and courage. At the same time, you can scold and blame him for all Russian troubles as much as you like, but the fact that his activities are selfless is obvious. He did not increase his power, but decreased it, a unique case. After all, all the great deeds of history were improvisations. Gorbacheva M.S. It is often accused that he did not have a well-thought-out plan for the restructuring. It is important to note that it could not have happened, but even if it had existed, life and various factors would not have allowed this plan to come true. Moreover, Gorbachev came too late to reform the system. At that time there were too few people ready to read the state in a democratic spirit. And Gorbachev’s path is the path of introducing new content into old forms. All the grandiose destructive and creative work of Gorbachev M.S. is unthinkable without idealism and courage, in which there is an element of “beautiful soul” and naivety. And it was precisely these traits of Gorbachev, without which there would have been no perestroika, that contributed to its defeat. Definitely, Gorbachev M.S. a large personality whose strength is also her weakness. He relied on reason, hoped to realize universal human interests in his country and in the world, but he did not have the strength to replace the old power relations with new ones.
Thus, the analysis of two outstanding personalities showed how strongly a personality can influence the course of history, and how personal characteristics can radically change the course of the historical process. One cannot beg the role of personality in history, because a progressive personality accelerates the course of the historical process and directs it in the right direction. At the same time, there are many examples of the influence of personality on history, both positive and negative, precisely thanks to which our modern state took shape.
Literature:
1. Malyshev I.V. The role of the individual and the masses in history, - M., 2009. - 289 p.
2. Plekhanov G.V. Selected philosophical works, - M.: INFRA-M, 2006. - 301 p.
3. Plekhanov G.V., On the question of the role of personality in history // History of Russia. – 2009. – No. 12. – P. 25-36.
4. Fedoseev P.N. The role of the masses and the individual in history, - M., 2007. - 275 p.
5. Shaleeva V.M. Personality and its role in society // State and law. - 2011. - No. 4. - P. 10-16.
Scientific adviser:
Candidate of Historical Sciences, Ragunshtein Arseny Grigorievich.
The German philosopher Karl Jaspers wrote that man strives to understand history as a whole in order to understand himself with its help. History is a memory for us, it is a foundation, once laid, a connection with which we maintain if we do not want to disappear without a trace, but to make our contribution to culture. History helps us better understand human nature. Looking at the history of mankind, we can say that its events occurred under the influence of two types of reasons: objective and subjective. Under objective reasons historical process is understood as natural, climatic and economic conditions, under subjective – actions of people that are performed in accordance with some intentions, ideas, emotions, etc. History, unlike nature, cannot develop without humans; history is created by people, not by transpersonal forces. But despite the fact that the laws of society act through people and thanks to people, they are objective. Social laws are statistical in nature; they are laws-trends that develop as a result of the actions of individuals. Through his activities, a person softens or strengthens the effect of social laws, slows down or accelerates them, but a person cannot abolish the law.
Can a person influence the course of historical events? If we proceed from the idea that history is fatal and there are strict laws in it that cannot be influenced, then, obviously, the answer will be this: an individual cannot leave his unique mark on history. But it is more correct to believe that history is not fatal; each historical situation leaves several options for the further development of events. The actions of individuals who accidentally or naturally found themselves on the crest of a historical wave determine which of the possibilities will be realized. People are not puppets, but active participants in history. Of course, a person acts in given circumstances, his personality is formed in certain conditions, but, being what he is, a person is still free, he can prefer one or another course of action and push the development of the situation in a certain direction. In a word, there is no fatality in history, and every person can prove himself. According to Arnold Toynbee, personality is equal to history, since without personality history does not exist. It should only be added that in every historical situation many people act, and they all have their own intentions, plans, and are driven by passions and ideas. The general vector of history consists of the actions of millions, but the anonymity of the historical process does not negate its personal nature.
History is made by many people, but certain groups or individuals, due to special position, power or random circumstances, can influence the course of the historical process more seriously than others. People who find themselves at the peak of historical events - leaders, military leaders, religious figures - make decisions, give orders, sign treaties, these acts of their personal will influence the course of events, both positive and negative. If we keep in mind the history of culture, then the personal factor becomes even more significant; spiritual history is made by individuals, and not by large masses of people.
The very fact of the promotion of a particular personality to the forefront of history is an accident, but in order to be commensurate with the circumstances, the personality must have very specific properties. Modern social psychology argues that all great historical figures have charisma. Charisma is understood as exceptional talent, as special personality qualities that evoke respect from others and subordinate them to the will of a charismatic figure, as the art of charming people and captivating them with oneself. As the French sociologist Serge Moscovici argues, this attraction silences all moral doubts, overturns all legitimate opposition to the leader and often turns the usurper into a hero. The main quality of a charismatic personality is faith. A charismatic leader believes in everything he says or does; for him, the struggle for power coincides with the struggle for the interests of the people, the revolution or the party. Hegel said that great personalities do not belong to themselves, they act as the face, will and spirit of the people.
A special quality of a charismatic personality is the predominance of courage over intelligence. According to Serge Moscovici, there are quite a lot of people in politics who are able to analyze the situation and propose a solution; they are advisors, experts and implementers, but theory means nothing without the will to action and the ability to captivate people. An important characteristic of a charismatic personality is authority, the person who possesses it forces obedience and, therefore, achieves what he strives for. Moscovici distinguishes between the authority of a position and the authority of an individual. Authority of the position a person acquires along with belonging to a certain class, estate or influential family, this authority is transmitted along with tradition, and even if a person does not have any personal significance and personal talents, his authority is ensured by a place in the social hierarchy. Personal authority does not depend on external signs of power or social status, it comes from a personality that charms, attracts, inspires. In stable and hierarchically structured societies, official authority predominates; in modern societies with great opportunities for horizontal and vertical mobility, the main authority becomes the authority of the individual.
But a charismatic personality, despite all the possibilities and abilities, does not have absolute freedom. It’s a paradox, but as much as a charismatic personality controls the masses, he is equally dependent on the masses. Without a crowd there is no leader. No one person, even a charismatic one, can influence the course of history alone; his will must be embodied in the joint actions of many people. Thus, the individual and the masses are two opposite poles of the historical process, determining its course and content.
So, patterns in the historical process do not exclude, but presuppose the free action of man; historical events are formed from the actions of individual people, and their result may be completely unexpected. Freedom and necessity in history are closely related; the necessity of the historical process is realized through the free actions of individuals pursuing their own private interests. As the economist Adam Smith wrote, by pursuing his own interests, a person often serves the interests of society more effectively than when he consciously strives to do so.
- See paragraph 3.6.